Tuesday, May 26, 2009
Introduction to the blog
In the following blog, we offer analyses of three educational writings. The first two correspond to two chapters in a book written by John Dewey, Democracy and Education. The third piece is an article published by Sears titled What Research Tells Us about Citizenship Education in English Canada. Our analysis of the three includes a brief summary of each work. In addition to having contextualized the words of both authors, we have supplemented those summaries with relevant audio-visual materials, with some hyperlinks for further reading and extra information and with some critical questions. We invite you to answer those questions or to formulate general comments about any of the three pieces.
General question
Does and should citizenship education in Canadian schools serve patriotic purposes?
Monday, May 25, 2009
Dewey's chapters, question 1
Is it possible to reconcile the conflict affecting education for and in a democratic society between nationalistic principles and wider social aims?
Dewey's chapters, question 2
Dewey has alluded several times in the chapters to class struggles. This notion appears to be an important element of his historical analyses, notably when it comes to addressing the feudal system. He has also suggested that, in a democratic society, there would not be any dominant class or any class struggle. In addition, in line with the principles of the First International, Dewey seems to condemn nationalistic claims. Does Marxism underpin Dewey’s arguments?
Dewey's chapters, question 3
In these two chapters, Dewey has made few references to women. He has mostly employed the masculine gender to refer to students. What do you think was the place of women in his educational philosophy?
Dewey's chapters, question 3
In these two chapters, Dewey has made few references to women. He has mostly employed the masculine gender to refer to students. What do you think was the place of women in his educational philosophy?
Sears' article, question 1
How can we situate the issue of Canadian identity within the context of current citizenship education curriculum and praxis?
Sears' article, question 2
Sears quoted a study by Werner et al., (1977), whose findings suggest, that despite programme implementation to encourage cultural pluralism in citizenship education in Canada, the hidden curriculum that is being implemented in Canadian classrooms represents the value system of the dominant white (middle-class) culture. Studies have shown that the majority of teachers are white members of the middle-class. Is it possible to implement an authentic multicultural citizenship education curriculum without a multicultural teaching profession? Is it fair?
Sears' article, question 3
Why hasn’t the issue of gender equity in citizenship education received as much attention as the issue of multiculturalism, in terms of the development of specific courses and materials?
Dewey: The Democratic Conception in Education
Context
Several aspects of the spatio-temporal context of the writing of Dewey’s Democracy and Education and some notes about this author could enhance our understanding of this essay. He published this book n 1916 in the United States. Thus, one year before the creation of the first communist state, he completed this piece during the First World War. Tensions triggered by several nationalist movements within major European empires had generated this war (Hobsbawn, 1996). This has influenced Dewey’s analysis of the German educational system at the time. Furthermore, at this point in time, compulsory education was not yet part of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and was not implemented everywhere in the United States (Epstein, 2007). Hence, Dewey could only describe and examine the case of the birth in Germany of this educational movement. As for Dewey’s life, he was one of the founders of pragmatism. In the same sense, he has believed in educational progressivism and has espoused democratic ideals (Senese, Tozer, and Violas, 1997). Philosophies of education represented his most important interest (Senese et al., 1997).
Summary of The Democratic Conception in Education of Dewey
Dewey has underpinned his chapter with one premise: education serves the purpose of improving society. He has claimed that educators must predicate this purpose with an understanding of societies and with an ideal society. As a result, in this chapter, Dewey has examined various notions of society to identify an ideal one. Then, he reviewed three historic philosophies of education to indicate briefly what educators will have to accomplish to build this ideal society. He has broken down his argumentation in five sections.
1. The Implications of Human Associations
In this section, he has tried to articulate the criteria that would characterize his ideal society. To realize this, he has started by defining society as a human association maintained because of the interests shared by the members of the society. This has led him to claim that the word society can have two distinct meanings, one de jure and one de facto. According to him, de jure, a society would correspond to a united whole. However, he has suggested that, in fact, a number of societies, of human associations, comprise this society de jure. Such societies can be criminal ones, educational ones, religious ones… Dewey has advanced that, for each society, its members possess common interests. These interests can be conflicting with the ones of others. For Dewey, this meant a reduction in the number of interactions between the societies that limits progress. Thus, he has called for increasing the number of common interests of the members of the society de jure.
2. The Democratic Ideal
From this, his ideal society proceeds, a democratic one. According to Dewey, a democratic society involves transcending the barriers existing between classes, races and national territories. In this sense, such a society would eliminate the barriers existing between the conflicting interests. The author has selected this ideal because the objective of democracy is to increase and to sustain the common interests of citizens. He has considered that this type of society would be mobile. Therefore, Dewey has believed that to attain this objective education must foster personal initiatives and adaptability. This has prompted his examination of historic philosophies of education.
3. The Platonic Educational Philosophy
The Platonic educational philosophy is the first of those philosophies. Dewey has asserted that the following premise underlies this philosophy: a society is stably organized when every individual does what is useful to others. After suggesting that he support this premise, he affirmed that Plato had proposed that the goals of education are to identify the aptitudes that these individuals would employ to do what is useful to others, and to develop those aptitudes. Ultimately, this education would assign everyone to one of three professions. However, Dewey has contended that this would limit social progress. In addition, since Plato had advanced that the platonic educational model could only proceed from a harmonious society, therefore could not improve a society, Dewey has argued that this model is not completely appropriate for the mobile democratic ideal.
4. The “Individualistic” Ideal of the Eighteenth Century
Consequently, Dewey began the examination of an educational ideal of the eighteenth century. Rousseau’s Emil grounds this educational conception. In essence, Rousseau’s educational philosophy is antisocial, meaning that it is at odds with the French society of the eighteenth century. Dewey has asserted that the goals and the means of this movement lay in nature. According to the writer, the objective of Rousseau’s movement had been the emancipation of the individual from the prejudices of the feudal society. This had entailed replacing the feudal system by the ideal of humanity.
5. Education as National and as Social
However, Dewey has thought that the reliance on naturalistic means was problematic for the German people of the nineteenth century. He has argued that, for the Germans, this reliance had represented a negation of education in itself. This has predicated Dewey’s analysis of the third historic philosophy of education, the German example. To formulate this analysis, he has first warned readers about the political state of the German people at the time. The end of the Napoleonic war had separated Germans between the Kingdom of Prussia, the Russian Empire and the Austrian Empire. In this context, German nationalism had emerged. According to Dewey, the naturalistic ideal of Rousseau was not adequate to supply nationalists with patriots. Dewey has affirmed that, therefore, Germans had decided to develop an organized system of education. For Dewey, this organized system had aimed at raising patriotic citizens, implying forgetting about Rousseau’s humanitarian ideal. Dewey has claimed that this would have required and had required the subordination of Germans to nation. Kant had articulated such a concern earlier but most German nationalists labeled him as an egoist.
In line with Kant’s point of view, Dewey has drawn two conclusions. First, he has contended that the comprehension of the dualism between individualistic and social educations necessitates taking into account the various contexts. More importantly, his analysis has led him to highlight the problem for education in and for a democratic society of the conflict between nationalistic principles and wider social aims. He has thought that nationalistic goals entail obscuring social aims. He has propounded that the solution to this issue involves changing school curricula and teaching methods and ensuring that no class would exploit any other. Then, he proposed that educators start emphasizing on what binds people together.
Several aspects of the spatio-temporal context of the writing of Dewey’s Democracy and Education and some notes about this author could enhance our understanding of this essay. He published this book n 1916 in the United States. Thus, one year before the creation of the first communist state, he completed this piece during the First World War. Tensions triggered by several nationalist movements within major European empires had generated this war (Hobsbawn, 1996). This has influenced Dewey’s analysis of the German educational system at the time. Furthermore, at this point in time, compulsory education was not yet part of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and was not implemented everywhere in the United States (Epstein, 2007). Hence, Dewey could only describe and examine the case of the birth in Germany of this educational movement. As for Dewey’s life, he was one of the founders of pragmatism. In the same sense, he has believed in educational progressivism and has espoused democratic ideals (Senese, Tozer, and Violas, 1997). Philosophies of education represented his most important interest (Senese et al., 1997).
Summary of The Democratic Conception in Education of Dewey
Dewey has underpinned his chapter with one premise: education serves the purpose of improving society. He has claimed that educators must predicate this purpose with an understanding of societies and with an ideal society. As a result, in this chapter, Dewey has examined various notions of society to identify an ideal one. Then, he reviewed three historic philosophies of education to indicate briefly what educators will have to accomplish to build this ideal society. He has broken down his argumentation in five sections.
1. The Implications of Human Associations
In this section, he has tried to articulate the criteria that would characterize his ideal society. To realize this, he has started by defining society as a human association maintained because of the interests shared by the members of the society. This has led him to claim that the word society can have two distinct meanings, one de jure and one de facto. According to him, de jure, a society would correspond to a united whole. However, he has suggested that, in fact, a number of societies, of human associations, comprise this society de jure. Such societies can be criminal ones, educational ones, religious ones… Dewey has advanced that, for each society, its members possess common interests. These interests can be conflicting with the ones of others. For Dewey, this meant a reduction in the number of interactions between the societies that limits progress. Thus, he has called for increasing the number of common interests of the members of the society de jure.
2. The Democratic Ideal
From this, his ideal society proceeds, a democratic one. According to Dewey, a democratic society involves transcending the barriers existing between classes, races and national territories. In this sense, such a society would eliminate the barriers existing between the conflicting interests. The author has selected this ideal because the objective of democracy is to increase and to sustain the common interests of citizens. He has considered that this type of society would be mobile. Therefore, Dewey has believed that to attain this objective education must foster personal initiatives and adaptability. This has prompted his examination of historic philosophies of education.
3. The Platonic Educational Philosophy
The Platonic educational philosophy is the first of those philosophies. Dewey has asserted that the following premise underlies this philosophy: a society is stably organized when every individual does what is useful to others. After suggesting that he support this premise, he affirmed that Plato had proposed that the goals of education are to identify the aptitudes that these individuals would employ to do what is useful to others, and to develop those aptitudes. Ultimately, this education would assign everyone to one of three professions. However, Dewey has contended that this would limit social progress. In addition, since Plato had advanced that the platonic educational model could only proceed from a harmonious society, therefore could not improve a society, Dewey has argued that this model is not completely appropriate for the mobile democratic ideal.
4. The “Individualistic” Ideal of the Eighteenth Century
Consequently, Dewey began the examination of an educational ideal of the eighteenth century. Rousseau’s Emil grounds this educational conception. In essence, Rousseau’s educational philosophy is antisocial, meaning that it is at odds with the French society of the eighteenth century. Dewey has asserted that the goals and the means of this movement lay in nature. According to the writer, the objective of Rousseau’s movement had been the emancipation of the individual from the prejudices of the feudal society. This had entailed replacing the feudal system by the ideal of humanity.
5. Education as National and as Social
However, Dewey has thought that the reliance on naturalistic means was problematic for the German people of the nineteenth century. He has argued that, for the Germans, this reliance had represented a negation of education in itself. This has predicated Dewey’s analysis of the third historic philosophy of education, the German example. To formulate this analysis, he has first warned readers about the political state of the German people at the time. The end of the Napoleonic war had separated Germans between the Kingdom of Prussia, the Russian Empire and the Austrian Empire. In this context, German nationalism had emerged. According to Dewey, the naturalistic ideal of Rousseau was not adequate to supply nationalists with patriots. Dewey has affirmed that, therefore, Germans had decided to develop an organized system of education. For Dewey, this organized system had aimed at raising patriotic citizens, implying forgetting about Rousseau’s humanitarian ideal. Dewey has claimed that this would have required and had required the subordination of Germans to nation. Kant had articulated such a concern earlier but most German nationalists labeled him as an egoist.
In line with Kant’s point of view, Dewey has drawn two conclusions. First, he has contended that the comprehension of the dualism between individualistic and social educations necessitates taking into account the various contexts. More importantly, his analysis has led him to highlight the problem for education in and for a democratic society of the conflict between nationalistic principles and wider social aims. He has thought that nationalistic goals entail obscuring social aims. He has propounded that the solution to this issue involves changing school curricula and teaching methods and ensuring that no class would exploit any other. Then, he proposed that educators start emphasizing on what binds people together.
Dewey: Aims in Education
The Nature of an Aim
Dewey contends that, when considering the nature of an aim in a democratic society, it is vital that the aims or ends be emergent from within the process in question. He notes that in a democratic society, in which social relationships are equitably balanced, we should be concerned when aims that belong within the process are instead formulated outside of it. Dewey discusses the distinction between results and ends; indeed, he notes that a result is when there is nothing in the outcome that completes what preceded it, while ends involve a process of transformation and realization, in which each step of the process paves the way for the next. Dewey notes that “an aim implies an orderly and ordered activity, one in which the order consists in the progressive completing of a process.” (p.102) Dewey contends that aims provide direction in education and a progressive, purposeful process that leads to an end. He further attests that acting with an aim is an action of intelligence and consciousness or wide-awakedness.
The Criteria of Good Aims
Dewey argues that there are three criteria necessary for the establishment of good aims. Firstly, he notes that good aims must be based on existing conditions in education. They must take into consideration the present realities of the situation, including resources and challenges. Secondly, good aims are flexible, not rigid, and are responsive to the process as it unfolds. He writes that “a good aim surveys the present state of experience of pupils, and forming a tentative plan of treatment, keeps the plan constantly in view and yet modifies it as conditions develop.” (p. 105) Thirdly, Dewey asserts that a good aim must emerge from the learning activity itself, to be both the ends and means. Alternately, Dewey warns that separating ends from means reduces a learning activity to drudgery.
Applications in Education
Dewey notes that any aim is a valuable one, if it assists in observation, choice and planning in implementing an activity. He also makes the distinction that only people, such as students, parents, or teachers, can have aims, but that an abstract idea like education cannot itself have aims. Dewey states some of the characteristics found in all good educational aims: 1) An educational aim must be emergent from the intrinsic activities and needs of the individual to be educated. 2) An aim must lend itself to a method that works with the activities of those participating in the learning 3) As educators, we need to make sure that aims are set within a specific context and take multiple connections into account. Dewey notes that this demands a wider and more flexible outlook. He writes that “one cannot climb a number of different mountains simultaneously, but the view had when different mountains are ascended supplement one another; they do not set up incompatible, competing worlds.” (p.110)
Dewey contends that, when considering the nature of an aim in a democratic society, it is vital that the aims or ends be emergent from within the process in question. He notes that in a democratic society, in which social relationships are equitably balanced, we should be concerned when aims that belong within the process are instead formulated outside of it. Dewey discusses the distinction between results and ends; indeed, he notes that a result is when there is nothing in the outcome that completes what preceded it, while ends involve a process of transformation and realization, in which each step of the process paves the way for the next. Dewey notes that “an aim implies an orderly and ordered activity, one in which the order consists in the progressive completing of a process.” (p.102) Dewey contends that aims provide direction in education and a progressive, purposeful process that leads to an end. He further attests that acting with an aim is an action of intelligence and consciousness or wide-awakedness.
The Criteria of Good Aims
Dewey argues that there are three criteria necessary for the establishment of good aims. Firstly, he notes that good aims must be based on existing conditions in education. They must take into consideration the present realities of the situation, including resources and challenges. Secondly, good aims are flexible, not rigid, and are responsive to the process as it unfolds. He writes that “a good aim surveys the present state of experience of pupils, and forming a tentative plan of treatment, keeps the plan constantly in view and yet modifies it as conditions develop.” (p. 105) Thirdly, Dewey asserts that a good aim must emerge from the learning activity itself, to be both the ends and means. Alternately, Dewey warns that separating ends from means reduces a learning activity to drudgery.
Applications in Education
Dewey notes that any aim is a valuable one, if it assists in observation, choice and planning in implementing an activity. He also makes the distinction that only people, such as students, parents, or teachers, can have aims, but that an abstract idea like education cannot itself have aims. Dewey states some of the characteristics found in all good educational aims: 1) An educational aim must be emergent from the intrinsic activities and needs of the individual to be educated. 2) An aim must lend itself to a method that works with the activities of those participating in the learning 3) As educators, we need to make sure that aims are set within a specific context and take multiple connections into account. Dewey notes that this demands a wider and more flexible outlook. He writes that “one cannot climb a number of different mountains simultaneously, but the view had when different mountains are ascended supplement one another; they do not set up incompatible, competing worlds.” (p.110)
Sears: What Research Tells Us about Citizenship Education in English Canada
Context of Article
Alan Sears is a professor of Social Studies Education and a member of the Citizenship Education Research and Development Group at the University of New Brunswick. He has been a social studies teacher for more than 30 years, working at all levels from primary to graduate school. His research and writing have been in the fields of social studies and citizenship education. He is the Chief Regional Editor for Canada for the journal Citizenship Teaching and Learning. He is currently principal investigator on an SSHRC project designed to map how young people in Alberta and the Maritimes conceptualize democratic participation. He regularly conducts workshops with teachers on social studies and citizenship education.
This particular article was published in 1996. Over the last decade, there have been changes to provincial curriculum implemented in Ontario, as well as several other provincial jurisdictions across Canada.
Introduction
Citing numerous differences between Canada and the United States, in terms of challenges in citizenship education, Sears argues the importance of developing a body of theory and research in citizenship education that recognizes unique features of Canadian citizenship. In this article, Sears aims to summarize the findings of recent research in citizenship education in English Canada. In doing so, Sears’ goal is to assess the current knowledge base and offer suggestions for further research.
What culture? What heritage? The Benchmark
Sears begins with a summary of the findings of the watershed study of Canadian social studies, authored by A.B. Hodgetts in 1968. Sears notes that the study concluded that much of the standardized Canadian history taught at the time in schools was outdated, basically useless, bereft off connections to the present, and excluded conflicting material. He also found that drastically differing forms of civics education were offered to English and French students. Sears calls for a similar comprehensive study to be carried out now and in the absence of such a current study, he frames his review of the relevant literature.
Grassroots Citizenship
Sears notes that Masemann (1989) found that citizenship education is a major goal of public education in general and the social studies curriculum in particular in all jurisdictions across the country. She also found that the focus has shifted over the past 20 years away from the mechanics of government to more emphasis on multiculturalism, bilingualism, regional accommodation, human rights and global awareness. Sears & Hughes (1994) found these trends to be continuing. Werner et al (1977) attempted to uncover the hidden curriculum with regard to the treatment of ethnic groups in social studies and concluded that in most programmes, the underlying value system was that of the dominant white and middle-class culture. Other research indicated that multicultural programmes in schools are most often the “celebratory” type, focusing on food, dress, and music. Gaskell, McLaren and Novogrodsky (1989) and Brookes (1990) call into question the gendered nature of the curriculum. Women’s experiences and knowldge have not been adequately represented and the authors call for reexamination of the entire curriculum. Sears and Hughes (1994) report data that indicates that some of these issues are being addressed at the policy level. Programmes have been developed and implemented with explicit rationales based on multi-culturalism. Tarrow (1990) found that Canada is further ahead in laying a foundation for programmes in human rights education than the US.
Behind Classroom Doors
Sears notes that very little is known about the practice of citizenship education in Canadian classrooms. Hodgetts (1968) found an abysmal state of practice in classrooms. Only 20% of classrooms he observed were rated as satisfactory. Osbourne (1994) and Sears and Hughes (1994) argue that the analysis of policy documents does not reveal the extent to which the programmes are guiding actual classroom practice. Sears and Parsons (1991) note that theory and curriculum development in the field for over 70 years has tended to emphasize an issues-centred, critical-thinking approach to citizenship education. Conley and Osbourne (1983) found that most high school courses in political science took “the civics approach” with an emphasis put on rote learning of political systems and debates about issues being avoided. Research indicates that many new teachers faced with the challenges of the classroom abandon the progressive methods they supported in university and took up very conservative and custodial ones. Teachers are often reluctant to deal with potentially controversial issues in class particularly when they are contemporary and local.
Several studies examined assessments of student knowledge about and attitudes towards human rights in Canada (Curtis, 1981; Kirkwood et al. 1987; Ungerleider, 1990). These researchers indicated that while their results are generally positive, there is still room for improvement in students’ knowledge and attitudes in this area and that a specific focus on rights in school is needed.
Social Studies is Central
Although social studies is viewed as shouldering the responsibility for citizenship education, Sears and Hughes (1994) report that there is growing recognition that other subject areas have responsibilities in the area of citizenship education as well. It is also recognized that citizenship education also takes place through the hidden curriculum of school life.
Conclusion
Sears concludes by calling for more and better quality research in the area of citizenship education. He notes that challenges in this task include Canada’s size, diverse population and provincial education system.
Alan Sears is a professor of Social Studies Education and a member of the Citizenship Education Research and Development Group at the University of New Brunswick. He has been a social studies teacher for more than 30 years, working at all levels from primary to graduate school. His research and writing have been in the fields of social studies and citizenship education. He is the Chief Regional Editor for Canada for the journal Citizenship Teaching and Learning. He is currently principal investigator on an SSHRC project designed to map how young people in Alberta and the Maritimes conceptualize democratic participation. He regularly conducts workshops with teachers on social studies and citizenship education.
This particular article was published in 1996. Over the last decade, there have been changes to provincial curriculum implemented in Ontario, as well as several other provincial jurisdictions across Canada.
Introduction
Citing numerous differences between Canada and the United States, in terms of challenges in citizenship education, Sears argues the importance of developing a body of theory and research in citizenship education that recognizes unique features of Canadian citizenship. In this article, Sears aims to summarize the findings of recent research in citizenship education in English Canada. In doing so, Sears’ goal is to assess the current knowledge base and offer suggestions for further research.
What culture? What heritage? The Benchmark
Sears begins with a summary of the findings of the watershed study of Canadian social studies, authored by A.B. Hodgetts in 1968. Sears notes that the study concluded that much of the standardized Canadian history taught at the time in schools was outdated, basically useless, bereft off connections to the present, and excluded conflicting material. He also found that drastically differing forms of civics education were offered to English and French students. Sears calls for a similar comprehensive study to be carried out now and in the absence of such a current study, he frames his review of the relevant literature.
Grassroots Citizenship
Sears notes that Masemann (1989) found that citizenship education is a major goal of public education in general and the social studies curriculum in particular in all jurisdictions across the country. She also found that the focus has shifted over the past 20 years away from the mechanics of government to more emphasis on multiculturalism, bilingualism, regional accommodation, human rights and global awareness. Sears & Hughes (1994) found these trends to be continuing. Werner et al (1977) attempted to uncover the hidden curriculum with regard to the treatment of ethnic groups in social studies and concluded that in most programmes, the underlying value system was that of the dominant white and middle-class culture. Other research indicated that multicultural programmes in schools are most often the “celebratory” type, focusing on food, dress, and music. Gaskell, McLaren and Novogrodsky (1989) and Brookes (1990) call into question the gendered nature of the curriculum. Women’s experiences and knowldge have not been adequately represented and the authors call for reexamination of the entire curriculum. Sears and Hughes (1994) report data that indicates that some of these issues are being addressed at the policy level. Programmes have been developed and implemented with explicit rationales based on multi-culturalism. Tarrow (1990) found that Canada is further ahead in laying a foundation for programmes in human rights education than the US.
Behind Classroom Doors
Sears notes that very little is known about the practice of citizenship education in Canadian classrooms. Hodgetts (1968) found an abysmal state of practice in classrooms. Only 20% of classrooms he observed were rated as satisfactory. Osbourne (1994) and Sears and Hughes (1994) argue that the analysis of policy documents does not reveal the extent to which the programmes are guiding actual classroom practice. Sears and Parsons (1991) note that theory and curriculum development in the field for over 70 years has tended to emphasize an issues-centred, critical-thinking approach to citizenship education. Conley and Osbourne (1983) found that most high school courses in political science took “the civics approach” with an emphasis put on rote learning of political systems and debates about issues being avoided. Research indicates that many new teachers faced with the challenges of the classroom abandon the progressive methods they supported in university and took up very conservative and custodial ones. Teachers are often reluctant to deal with potentially controversial issues in class particularly when they are contemporary and local.
Several studies examined assessments of student knowledge about and attitudes towards human rights in Canada (Curtis, 1981; Kirkwood et al. 1987; Ungerleider, 1990). These researchers indicated that while their results are generally positive, there is still room for improvement in students’ knowledge and attitudes in this area and that a specific focus on rights in school is needed.
Social Studies is Central
Although social studies is viewed as shouldering the responsibility for citizenship education, Sears and Hughes (1994) report that there is growing recognition that other subject areas have responsibilities in the area of citizenship education as well. It is also recognized that citizenship education also takes place through the hidden curriculum of school life.
Conclusion
Sears concludes by calling for more and better quality research in the area of citizenship education. He notes that challenges in this task include Canada’s size, diverse population and provincial education system.
References
Dewey, John. (1968). “The democratic conception in education” & “Aims in education” in Democracy and education (pp. 81-110). New York: The Free Press.
Epstein, Robert. (2007). The case against adolescence: Rediscovering the adult in every teen. Sanger, CA: Quill Driver Books/World Dancer Press, Inc.
Hobsbawn, Eric. (1996). The age of extremes: A history of the world, 1914-1991. New York: Vintage Books.
Sears, Allan (1996). What research tells us about citizenship education in English Canada. Canadian Social Studies 30(3), 121-127.
Senese, Guy, Tozer, Steven, Violas, Paul. (1997). School and society: Historical and contemporary perspectives. Columbus, Ohio: McGraw-Hill Humanities.
Epstein, Robert. (2007). The case against adolescence: Rediscovering the adult in every teen. Sanger, CA: Quill Driver Books/World Dancer Press, Inc.
Hobsbawn, Eric. (1996). The age of extremes: A history of the world, 1914-1991. New York: Vintage Books.
Sears, Allan (1996). What research tells us about citizenship education in English Canada. Canadian Social Studies 30(3), 121-127.
Senese, Guy, Tozer, Steven, Violas, Paul. (1997). School and society: Historical and contemporary perspectives. Columbus, Ohio: McGraw-Hill Humanities.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
